Wines

Professor Pascal Ribéreau-Gayon is honorary dean of the School of Oenology at Bordeaux-II (Victor Segalen) University, and a corresponding member of the Institut de France. The opinions expressed in this article are those of the author.

The history of wine dates back to earliest antiquity. It is so simple to make: you have only to crush the grape to produce a spontaneous bubbling from the release of carbon dioxide, making the substance heat up and fermentation start.

Compared to grape juice, wine is more stable because of the alcohol and, with certain limitations, can be kept and even transported. However, the prime reason for its popularity is that people have always liked drinking it, perhaps because of its mood-elevating qualities. But, going beyond that, they have found in wine, more than in anything else they eat or drink, a range of quality and a diversity, raising the "harmonies of fragrance and taste" to the level of an art, just as the harmony of sounds and colours is the basis of art in music and painting.

Ancient wines were certainly very different from contemporary ones and closer to today’s piquettes [rough or "off" wines]. Most importantly, however, they had a special place in ancient civilizations, perfectly expressed in the rites of Catholicism. This situation continued over the centuries, with a constant concern to improve quality through efforts on two complementary fronts: selection of the best soil for growing the most succulent fruit and improvement of cultivation and wine-making methods. For a long time, technical progress was based almost exclusively on empirical observation, but in the latter half of the nineteenth century, advances in chemistry and biology were applied to great effect to the production of high-quality wines and, following on from Louis Pasteur, French scientists have played a prominent role in honing wine-growing and making.

Today, interest in wine is on the increase, especially in France, but also in many other places all over the world. Without a doubt this interest in wine, its place in the economy, the literature it spawns and its cultural function owe much to the improvement in quality.

More than any other, French viticulture has remained closely associated with traditional wine-growing areas, where cultivation has now been enhanced by technology. Even though nowadays competition from other countries is a fact of life, France’s place in the production of the greatest wines is undisputed; certainly there is competition, but this is in middle-of-the-range wines.

Many different types of wine

By definition, wine is "the product obtained exclusively from the total or partial alcoholic fermentation of crushed or whole grapes, or the must of grapes." Alcoholic fermentation is the conversion of sugars in the grape into alcohol and carbon dioxide; it is started by yeast, a microscopic organism on grapes deposited by insects as the fruit ripens. These days, another form of fermentation is used, malolactic fermentation, i.e. the breakdown of malic acid by certain bacteria which lowers the acidity, resulting in a softer taste; it is indispensable for red wines and less common for whites. Depending on many factors, the end products can be noticeably different.

White wines and red wines differ, of course, in colour, but also because the latter contains tannic acid. The characteristics of wines depend both on the vine variety and on whether or not the grape skins are left in the juice during fermentation. If the skins are removed, a white wine can be made from a black grape (Pinot de champagne). Red wines, only 43% of national production in 1950, now account for more than 70%.

Dry wines contain less than 4 grams per litre of sugar; they include all red wines and a majority of whites. Sweet wines or vins doux vary in their sugar content (between 10 and 80 g/l) which determines to a large extent how sweet they are. The production of sweet wines requires grapes to be very mature and rich in sugars of which only a part is converted into alcohol through fermentation. The presence of a mould, Botrytis cinerea (pourriture noble - noble rot), on the grape produces an overripe fruit of high quality which is exceptionally rich in sugar. Unlike sweet wines, liqueur wines (natural sweet red and white wines) are obtained by the addition, during or after fermentation, of a neutral alcohol, wine spirit, concentrated grape must or a mix of these products.

In contrast to still wines, sparkling wines release carbon dioxide when the bottle is opened, with pressure in the range of six bars - the result of a second fermentation which is absolutely indispensable. In the production of champagne-type wine (méthode champenoise) the wine goes through its second fermentation in the bottle; this process results in optimal quality as the wine ages in the bottle and when it is mature the sediment is removed. If the second fermentation takes place in the vat, before the wine is bottled, the process is known as méthode en cuve close. It is less time-consuming, but does not produce such high-quality wines.

Big differences in wine quality

Table wines are a class of wine which used to be called vins de consommation courante or vins ordinaires [wines for everyday consumption or ordinary wines]. European legislation requires these to have a minimum alcohol content of at least 8.5% or 9% volume depending on the geographical area in which it is produced. This category includes the increasingly popular vins de pays (local wines) produced in a specific region. Today vins de pays account for approximately half of all table wines, which themselves account for half the total harvest.

Whereas traditional table wines cannot carry any reference to the grape used, vins de pays indicate the vine variety. All vin de pays labels therefore indicate not just the vine variety but also their region of origin. This specifically French practice reflects the fact that France attaches greater importance to origin than to vine variety, unlike other wine-producing countries for which the type of grape is the primary factor.

This concept of origin is even more essential for appellation d’origine controlée (AOC) [registered designation of origin] wines which, together with the higher-quality vins délimités de qualité supérieure (VDSQ) are the categories in which French wines are classified under European legislation on quality wines produced in specified regions (PSR quality wines), known in French as vins de qualité produits dans des régions déterminées - VQPRD. These wines are subject to controls established by the producers themselves, under the supervision of the public authorities, stipulating the growing area, vine variety and wine-growing methods, yields, wine-making methods and analytical criteria. There may also be an annual tasting by an approved taster, attesting that the wines from the various vineyards have the requisite quality. AOC wines are produced from one or more vine varieties, as laid down in the regulations. But with the exception of Alsace, the name of the vine variety or varieties must not appear on the label.

The AOC system is central to the French viticulture system which is clearly the envy of many other countries. It is based on long practical experience which, over the centuries, has enabled the identification of the best areas for wine-growing and the varieties most suited to them. Countries with a more recent wine industry have not taken the time to do such thorough and careful work and consequently prefer to identify their wine solely by vine variety.

Adoption of the AOC concept was found necessary in the early part of the twentieth century in the wake of catastrophes for wine-growers (mildew, Phylloxera) and economic crises. These situations led to fraudulent practices of which the wine-producers were the first victims. They thus banded together to defend their common heritage. Setting up such a system proved difficult. The success of the AOC system is, however, evident, since there are about 350 AOCs covering the various vineyards of France. The National Institute for the Designation of Origin (INAO - Institut national des appellations d’origine) is responsible for approving production conditions and ensuring compliance with the regulations.

Other terms encountered in wine production are vins de crus and vins de châteaux. The crus are quality wines made in a specific group of vineyards ("terroirs"); generally they require ageing for several years, first in vats and then in the bottle in order to reach their peak. It is the best of these vins de crus that have made our great wines famous; they are the engines of the French wine industry and have enabled more modest crus to become known and appreciated. But the word "cru" which appears on labels is not governed by the same regulations in every region. In Burgundy, the grands crus and premiers crus are the property of several wine-producers. The famous Clos-de-Vougeot is a grand cru produced from vineyards covering 50 hectares and is the property of 70 wine-growers. In Gironde, a cru is owned by an individual wine-grower. Château Lafite-Rothschild is a prestigious 1er cru classé produced from 100 hectares of vineyards with a single owner. The use of the name château is reserved for AOC wines; for wine made by cooperatives, growers must be able to prove that the grapes come exclusively from the vineyard in question. Use of the château label varies from region to region.

Finally, mention should be made of the vins de marque. These may be table wines or AOC wines. They are produced by blending wines from several properties in the same area; the wine is rigorously selected and substantial quantities are produced so that large markets can be supplied with wines of consistent quality. When it comes to less prestigious wines than the grands crus, the vins de marque clearly have a place alongside the vins de propriété; the latter are the products of more specific local areas, but because they are produced in limited quantities they are reserved for specific targeted markets and have not achieved world renown.

Champagne is a typical example of a very famous vin de marque. The region has a single appellation with wines made from different vine varieties and produced in different vineyards. From these different wines, each champagne producer makes his own marques, based on specific marketing criteria.

Primeurs, another common term on labels, has different meanings. The vins primeurs - the most famous is Beaujolais nouveau - are wines sold in bottles and drunk a few weeks after the wine harvest, having already achieved optimum quality.

The term vente en primeur is given to wines which will be ready to drink in several months, but are marketed in the year following the harvest even before being bottled and delivered to wine merchants. This method of marketing is very popular for the great Bordeaux wines; it allows wine-growers to be paid quickly and so helps them finance their operations. It also gives the wine merchants hopes of gleaning the extra profit they need for their sales promotion.

French wine production

France has nearly 950,000 hectares planted with vines and produces 50 to 60 million hectolitres a year (6.7 to 8 billion bottles), making her, with Italy, the world’s largest wine producers. In 1999, the breakdown of French wine production in millions of hectolitres was as follows:

 AOC wines

 Reds and rosés: 17.9

 Whites: 8.5

 Total: 26.4 (51%, compared to 37% in 1987)

 Vin de pays table wines

 Reds and rosés: 13.4

 Whites: 2.8

 Total: 16.2 (31%).

 Table wines (excluding vins de pays)

 Reds and rosés: 6.8

 Whites: 2.4

 Total: 9.2 (18%)

 Total

 Reds and rosés: 38.1 (73%)

 Whites: 13.7 (27%)

 Total: 51.8 (100%) plus 11.1 million hectolitres of wine for the production of Cognac and Armagnac.

World production totals about 280 million hectolitres. Between 1990 and 1991, Europe’s share fell from 79% to 74%. Over the same period, French production dropped from 23 to 21% of world production. In spite of the development of wine production in the New World, France retains a strong position. The figures must, however, be interpreted with caution, since the vineyards being planted in the United States and Australia will increase production in those countries. Competition from foreign wines remains serious given that the trend is towards a decline in world consumption which, in any case, is not keeping up with the increase in production.

80% of the total wine market is in Europe, and France accounts for 25% of global trade in wine. In ten years, the proportion of wine exports from the New World rose from 8 to 17%. Of the wine produced in France, 35 million bottles are sold in the home market and 15 million are exported. Two thirds of exports go to other European Union countries. A third goes to the United States, Canada, Japan and Switzerland. AOC wines account for 55% of exports in volume, but 83% in nominal terms.

As far as imports into France are concerned, these consist mostly of table wines from Italy and Spain and total only 5 million hectolitres. Taken as a whole, the wine trade produced a surplus of EUR 2.74 billion in 1993, which rose to EUR 5 billion in 1999, i.e. 56% of the total surplus in the agri-foodstuffs trade balance (EUR 9 billion).

Wine-industry occupations

In many countries, farmers grow the grapes and then sell them on to a processing company which actually produces and sells the wine.

In France the wine-growers used to grow the grapes and themselves handle the first stage in the wine-making process. Then the rough wine would be bought by a producer-distributor who would refine the product, possibly blend it, and subsequently market it. Thanks to advances in wine-making techniques, even small wine-growers can now do the bottling themselves, thereby giving consumers a greater guarantee of the wine’s origin.

About 150,000 wine-producers in France market their own wines. Some are independent, others belong to a cooperative. The cooperatives were established in the 1930s to help small wine-growers overcome the economic difficulties of the time. The importance of such cooperatives varies from region to region; they account for 46% of French wine production.

The independent wine-growers or cooperatives can then sell the wine in bulk to a producer-distributor who blends the wine to produce his own labels and bottles it, or bottle it themselves and sell it directly to a special clientele; the cooperatives have largely focused on the latter market. Finally, distributors market the very high-quality wines in the bottle throughout the world through their own networks.

In France, about one third of the wine produced is sold in supermarkets, and about one third in small speciality shops; one third is marketed directly.

Wine brokers, essential middle-men between growers and producers, organize transactions and ensure their satisfactory completion.

Oenologists and viticulture specialists develop the technical aspects of wine-making and wine-producing operations.

All in all, including the wine-growers and employees of the 2,500 wine distribution companies and over 800 cooperatives, some 200,000 people earn their living in the wine sector.

The wine market does not obey simple economic rules. Price is, of course, governed by the law of supply and demand, with the most expensive up to a hundred times more than the cheapest depending on the prestige of the wine’s origin and its quality. Prices have to take account of production costs and be consistent with those in the other various wine-producing countries. Moreover, they fluctuate according to the quality of the vintage, at least for well-known wines. They may also reflect the extent of available stocks.

Thanks to the high quality of her vineyards and sophisticated methods of wine-growing and making, which are constantly being improved, France has so far been able to meet the challenges from the development of wine production in several countries in the New World and even remains the indisputable benchmark for the production of the greatest wines. Although there are some concerns for the future, these are more to do with falling consumption at world level than with production.

The interest in wine over the past few years has caused prices for the greatest wines to soar. Of course, this could be deemed regrettable because such wines are today beyond the reach of all but a minority of very rich individuals. But it is also important to realize that such wines are exceptional products which can be likened to works of art whose production is limited; they are known throughout the world to enough connoisseurs willing to acquire them, even at a high price. And in fact their existence helps to promote less prestigious, but still excellent wines at more affordable prices. Nowadays, several wine-buying guides are published annually providing consumers with information on the quality and prices of the main wines produced in France.